Indonesia is a multilingual country with over 700 local languages; however, 70 per cent of these languages are at risk of endangerment. The government regulation supports the use of Indonesian in public spaces, which contributes to the decline of local language vitality. By looking at the linguistic landscape of Malang and Kupang, this study aims to capture local language vitality in western and eastern Indonesia. The main data of the study includes 2510 photographs of public signs in both cities. Walk-in interviews with the passersby and focus group discussions with local communities were also conducted to investigate their perception of selected signs. Results of the study on language vitality show that despite the dominance of Indonesian and English, local languages still appear in public spaces. Local communities are familiar with multilingual signage and can interpret the different linguistic codes according to the spatial distribution and placement of the signs. However, it is also found that multilingual signs have multidimensional layers and can provide contextual insights into the country: Indonesian dominates public signage under the national language policy, while English is primarily employed for its economic and global appeal. Local languages—such as Javanese, Kupang Malay, and Uab Meto/Dawan—surface mainly in governmental, identity, and social-movement contexts, showing that language visibility is closely tied to sociopolitical and economic factors. This article has offered a new perspective on the connection between linguistic landscape studies, language vitality, and socio-economic realities.

Keywords: multilingualism; linguistic vitality; linguistic landscapes; local language

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