This study concerns the spelling difficulties in English as a second language among young Malay learners. The objectives of this study are to identify and categorise the spelling errors produced by these learners and to investigate the linguistic factors for the error productions. This study employs Wardhaugh’s Contrastive Analysis as the main approach and Orthographic Depth Hypothesis as the foundation of the research. The Contrastive Analysis approach indicates that the linguistic differences between L1 and L2 may cause difficulties in L2 learning. The theoretical basis of this study claims that the degree to which an orthography deviates from easy one-to-one letter-sound plays a major role in L2 learner’s spelling performance. This study adapts a spelling assessment from El-Dakhs and Mitchell that tests students’ phonological, orthographic and morphological awareness and knowledge. The sample of this study consists of 46 eleven-year-old Malay students from a selected school in Selangor. The data for the study was gathered from the subjects’ responses in the assessment and interviews with selected students based on their test scores. The findings showed that the learners’ spelling performance was poorer in the orthographic tasks and better in the morphological and phonological tasks, suggesting the salience of orthography in the early stage of L2 learning. Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that educators employ orthographic, phonic-based and form-meaning approaches in their teaching to enhance their students’ spelling proficiency so as to assist their students in their literacy development.

Keywords: English language; Malay language; morphology; orthography; phonology; spelling; young Malay learners 

Abbott, R.D., Berninger, V.W. & Fayol, M. (2010). Longitudinal relationships of levels of language in writing and between writing and reading in grades 1 to 7. Journal of Educational Psycholog.y 102(2), 281.

Al Otaiba, S. & Hosp, J.L. (2010). Spell it out: The need for detailed spelling assessment to inform instruction. Assessment for Effective Intervention. 36(1), 3-6.

Alsaawi, A. (2015). Spelling errors made by Arab learners of English. International Journal of Linguistic.s 7(5), 55-67.

Annamalai, S. & Muniandy, B. (2013). Reading habit and attitude among Malaysian polytechnic students. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences. 5(1), 32-41.

Azizi Yahya, Harison Ishak, Zaidah Zainal, Ladan Javdan Faghat & Noordin Yahaya. (2012). Error analysis of L2 learners' writings, a case study. International Conference on Language, Medias and Culture. 33, 114-118.

Azman, H. (2016). Implementation and challenges of English language education reform in Malaysian primary schools. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies. 22(3), 65-78.

Bahr, R.H., Silliman, E.R., Danzak, R.L. & Wilkinson, L.C. (2015). Bilingual spelling patterns in middle school: it is more than transfer. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 18(1), 73-91.

Botley, S., Hakim, F. & Dillah, D. (2007). Investigating Spelling Errors in a Malaysian Learner Corpus. Malaysian Journal of ELT Research. 3(1), 74-93.

Bourassa, D. & Treiman, R. (2014). Spelling development and disability in English. Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and Disorders. 569-583.

Caravolas, M., Hulme, C. & Snowling, M.J. (2001). The foundations of spelling ability: Evidence from a 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language. 45(4), 751-774.

Carreker, S. (2005). Spelling instruction: Foundation of reading and ornament of writing. Perspectives. 31(3), 22-25.

Cataldo, S. & Ellis, N. (1990). Learning to spell, learning to read. In Pumfrey, P.D. & Elliott, C.D. (Ed.). Children’s Difficulties in Reading, Writing and Spelling: Challenges and Responses (pp. 101-125). London: The Falmer Press.

Chew, F.P. (2012). Literacy among the secondary schools students in Malaysia. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity. 2(6), 546.

Clark, C. (2012). Children's and young people's reading today: Findings from the 2011 National Literacy Trust's annual survey. London: National Literacy Trust.

Cook, V. (2004). The spelling of the regular past tense in English: Implications for lexical spelling and dual process models. Gothenburg Studies in English. 88, 59-68.

Darus, S. & Ching, K.H. (2009). Common errors in written English essays of Form One Chinese students: A case study. European Journal of Social Sciences. 10(2), 242-253.

Darus, S. & Subramaniam, K. (2009). Error analysis of the written English essays of secondary school students in Malaysia: A case study. European Journal of Social Sciences. 8(3), 483-495.

Devonshire, V., Morris, P. & Fluck, M. (2013). Spelling and reading development: The effect of teaching children multiple levels of representation in their orthography. Learning and Instruction. 25, 85-94.

Dixon, L.Q., Zhao, J. & Joshi, R.M. (2010). Influence of L1 orthography on spelling English words by bilingual children: A natural experiment comparing syllabic, phonological, and morphosyllabic first languages. Learning Disability Quarterly. 33(3), 211-221.

Durgunoğlu, A. Y. (2002). Cross-linguistic transfer in literacy development and implications for language learners. Annals of Dyslexia. 52, 189–204.

El-Dakhs, D. & Mitchell, A. (2011). Spelling errors among EFL high school graduates. Proceedings of the 4th Annual KSAALT Conference, pp. 1-19.

Fender, M. (2008). Spelling knowledge and reading development: Insights from Arab ESL learners. Reading in a Foreign Language. 20(1), 19.

Figueredo, L. & Varnhagen, C.K. (2006). Spelling and grammar checkers: Are they intrusive?. British Journal of Educational Technology. 37(5), 721-732.

Graham, S., Harris, K.R. & Chorzempa, B.F. (2002). Contribution of spelling instruction to the spelling, writing, and reading of poor spellers. Journal of Educational Psychology. 94(4), 669.

Joshi, R.M., Treiman, R., Carreker, S. & Moats, L.C. (2008). How words cast their spell. American Educator. 32(4), 6-16.

Katz, L. & Frost, R. (1992). The reading process is different for different orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. Advances in Psychology. 94, 67-84.

Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. (2012). Preliminary Report Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2015.

Lindsay, G. & Muijs, D. (2006). Challenging underachievement in boys.

Educational Research. 48(3), 313-332.

Martin, C.L. & Ranson, D.E. (1990). Spelling skills of business students:

An empirical investigation. The Journal of Business Communication (1973). 27(4), 377-400.

Moats, L.C. (2005). How spelling supports reading. American Educator, 6(12–22), 42 43.

Mohamed, A.R., Goh, L.L. & Eliza, W.R. (2004). English errors and Chinese learners. Sunway Academic Journal. 1, 83-97.

Nunes, T., Bryant, P. & Olsson, J. (2003). Learning morphological and phonological spelling rules: An intervention study. Scientific Studies of Reading. 7(3), 289 307.

Ocal, T. & Ehri, L. (2017). Spelling Ability in College Students Predicted by Decoding, Print Exposure, and Vocabulary. Journal of College Reading and Learning. 47(1), 58-74.

Oller, J. W. & Ziahosseiny, S.M. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis and spelling errors. Language Learning. 20(2), 183-189.

Ouellette, G. & Sénéchal, M. (2008). Pathways to literacy: A study of invented spelling and its role in learning to read. Child Development. 79(4), 899-913.

Park, C. (2011). The Influence of L1 Phonological and Orthographic System in L2 Spelling: A Comparison of Korean Learners of English and Native Speaking Children. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Ball State University, United States.

Peters, M. L. (1985). Spelling: Caught or taught? A new look. London: Routledge& Kegan Paul.

Rapp, B. & Beeson, P. (2003). Introduction. Aphasiology. 17(6-7), 531-534.

Sani, N. & Idris, A.R. (2013). Implementation of LINUS programme based on the model of Van Meter and Van Horn. The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Science. 1(2), 25-54.

Singer, B.D. & Bashir, A.S., (2004). Developmental variations in writing composition skills. Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and Disorders. 559-582.

Snow, C.E. & Biancarosa, G. (2003). Adolescent Literacy and the Achievement Gap: What Do We Know and Where Do We Go From Here?. New York: Carnegie Corporation.

Sun-Alperin, M.K. & Wang, M. (2008). Spanish-speaking children’s spelling errors with English vowel sounds that are represented by different graphemes in English and Spanish words. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 33(4), 932-948.

Templeton, S. & Bear, D.R. (eds.). (1992). Development of orthographic knowledge and the foundations of literacy: A memorial festschrift for Edmund H. Henderson. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Vaessen, A. & Blomert, L. (2013). The cognitive linkage and divergence of spelling and reading development. Scientific Studies of Readin.g 17(2), 89-107.

Wang, M., Park, Y. & Lee, K.R. (2006). Korean-English biliteracy acquisition: Cross language phonological and orthographic transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology. 98(1), 148.

Zaretsky, E., Kraljevic, J.K., Core, C. & Lencek, M. (2009). Literacy predictors and early reading and spelling skills as a factor of orthography: Cross-linguistic evidence. Written Language & Literacy. 12(1), 52-81.